The Odyssey is the second of the two great epics of ancient Greece, attributed to Homer, and one of the foundational texts of Western literature. The poem tells the story of Odysseus, the king of Ithaca, and his ten-year journey home from the Trojan War, during which he encountered the Cyclopes, the sorceress Circe, the deadly song of the Sirens, the monsters Scylla and Charybdis, and the underworld itself. The poem has been the model for adventure literature from Virgil’s Aeneid to James Joyce’s Ulysses to the Coen Brothers’ O Brother, Where Art Thou?
The Structure of the Odyssey
The Odyssey is divided into 24 books, and it is set in the forty days following Odysseus’s departure from the island of Ogygia, where he has been held captive by the nymph Calypso for seven years. The poem is told in a non-linear structure, with flashbacks and frame narratives. The first half of the poem (Books 1-12) tells the story of the journey, and the second half (Books 13-24) tells the story of the return to Ithaca and the killing of the suitors.
The poem opens with a council of the gods on Olympus, where Athena pleads with Zeus to allow Odysseus to return home. Zeus agrees, and Hermes is sent to Ogygia to order Calypso to release Odysseus. Meanwhile, in Ithaca, the suitors for the hand of Penelope are plotting to kill her son Telemachus.
The Major Adventures of Odysseus
The first half of the Odyssey recounts the adventures of Odysseus on his journey home, told by Odysseus himself to the Phaeacians, who have rescued him from the sea.
The Cicones
The first stop on the journey was the land of the Cicones, a Thracian people. Odysseus and his men raided the city and took plunder, but they lingered too long, and the Cicones returned with their neighbors and killed seventy-two of Odysseus’s men.
The Lotus-Eaters
The next stop was the land of the Lotus-Eaters, a people who ate a plant that made them forget their homes. Some of Odysseus’s men ate the lotus and lost all desire to return home. Odysseus had to drag them back to the ship by force.
Polyphemus
The most famous episode of the early Odyssey is the encounter with Polyphemus, the Cyclops. Odysseus and his men landed on the island of the Cyclopes, where they were trapped in a cave by Polyphemus, the son of Poseidon. Polyphemus, a cannibal, ate six of Odysseus’s men. Odysseus plied him with wine, told him his name was “Nobody,” and then, when the Cyclops fell asleep, drove a sharpened stake into his single eye, blinding him. The blinded Cyclops called for help, but when the other Cyclopes asked who was hurting him, he said “Nobody,” and they left him alone. Odysseus and his men escaped by clinging to the bellies of Polyphemus’s sheep.
Aeolus and the Bag of Winds
Odysseus visited Aeolus, the keeper of the winds, who gave him a bag containing all the winds except the west wind, which would carry him home. The crew, thinking the bag contained treasure, opened it when Odysseus was asleep, and the winds escaped, blowing the ship back to where they started.
The Laestrygonians
The Laestrygonians were a race of cannibal giants. They destroyed all of Odysseus’s ships except the one he was on, killing most of his men.
Circe
Odysseus and his men landed on the island of Circe, an enchantress who turned men into pigs. Hermes gave Odysseus the herb moly, which protected him from Circe’s magic. He threatened her, and she agreed to release his men. He and his crew stayed on her island for a year.
The Underworld
Odysseus descended to the underworld to consult the prophet Tiresias, who told him how to make it home. He saw the shades of many heroes, including Achilles, who told him that death was not to be desired even for the great.
The Sirens, Scylla, and Charybdis
Odysseus had to pass the Sirens, whose song lured sailors to their deaths, and the strait of Scylla and Charybdis, a six-headed monster and a great whirlpool. He plugged his men’s ears with beeswax and had himself tied to the mast so he could hear the Sirens’ song without being lured to his death. He passed Scylla’s cave, but she ate six of his men. He barely escaped Charybdis.
The Cattle of the Sun
Odysseus and his men landed on the island of Helios, the sun, where the cattle of the sun grazed. Odysseus was warned not to harm the cattle, but his men, starving, slaughtered some of them while Odysseus slept. Helios demanded that Zeus punish the sacrilege, and Zeus sent a storm that destroyed Odysseus’s ship, killing all his men. Odysseus alone survived, clinging to the wreckage of his ship.
Calypso
Odysseus drifted to the island of Ogygia, where the nymph Calypso held him captive for seven years, promising him immortality if he would stay with her. He refused, and the gods, finally taking pity on him, ordered Calypso to release him. She provided him with a raft and provisions, but Poseidon sent a storm that wrecked his raft, and he barely made it to the shore of Scheria, the land of the Phaeacians.
The Phaeacians
Odysseus was rescued by the Phaeacians, a people famous for their ships and their hospitality. Their king, Alcinous, hosted a feast in Odysseus’s honor, and Odysseus told the story of his wanderings. The Phaeacians then gave him a ship and sent him home to Ithaca.
The Return to Ithaca
The second half of the Odyssey tells the story of Odysseus’s return to Ithaca and his revenge on the suitors.
The Disguise as a Beggar
With the help of Athena, Odysseus returned to Ithaca disguised as a beggar. He met his loyal swineherd Eumaeus, who did not recognize him, and he hid in the swineherd’s hut while he planned his revenge.
The Meeting with Telemachus
Telemachus, the son of Odysseus and Penelope, returned from his journey to Pylos and Sparta, where he had gone in search of news of his father. He met his father in the swineherd’s hut, and Odysseus revealed himself to him. Together, they planned to kill the suitors.
The Test of the Bow
Penelope announced that she would marry the man who could string the bow of Odysseus and shoot an arrow through twelve axe heads. None of the suitors could even string the bow, but Odysseus, still in disguise, took the bow and easily strung it and shot the arrow through the axes.
The Killing of the Suitors
At this moment, Odysseus revealed himself to the suitors, and with the help of Telemachus and two loyal servants, he killed all the suitors. He then turned to Penelope, and the two were reunited after twenty years of separation.
The Cultural Legacy of the Odyssey
The Odyssey has had a profound influence on Western culture. The phrase “odyssey” has come to mean any long, eventful journey, and the word “Odyssean” has been used to describe epic adventures. The poem has been the model for adventure literature from Virgil’s Aeneid to James Joyce’s Ulysses to the Coen Brothers’ O Brother, Where Art Thou?
The themes of the Odyssey, including the homecoming, the reunion, the killing of the suitors, and the trials of the journey, have been retold in countless works of literature, art, and music. The poem has been translated into every major language, and it is the foundation of Western literature.
For more on the cultural legacy, see our profile of Odysseus, our guide to the Greek heroes, and our profile of Homer. For more on the cultural legacy, see our guide to Greek mythology in modern culture.